Essay on Ecosystems Water and Illinois River

Essay on Ecosystems Water and Illinois River Essay on Ecosystems: Water and Illinois River A favorite natural ecosystem of mine in my local area is the Illinois River. The Illinois River is used for a lot of different things in the community. The Illinois River is a huge tourist attraction for river rafting, canoeing, and camping. I know this first hand because I drowned while river rafting this summer. The river also provides local farmers with rich moist soil. That is why the Tahlequah farmers market is thriving each season. Another very common use for the river is for septic systems. The main function of a river is to transport water from head waters to the ocean. The natural process is never ending the hydrologic cycle returns river run off to the sea. For surface water the cycle lasts 11 days (all surface water is replaced every 11 days). Rivers provide a source of fresh water that is replenish able within a short time frame. Rivers carry a different source of water though. The Illinois River carries liquid water but it also carries some solids. Suspended solids (se diments) are small solid particles which remain in suspension in water as a colloid. The other main solid the Illinois River carries are dissolved solids (mostly salts). This is repetitive but rivers carry these solids to the ocean it is any rivers main role. The Illinois River has a dissolved salt content ranging from as low as 50 parts per million (ppm) near the head waters to as much as 1000 ppm in the lower reaches. The amount changes every year depending on Oklahoma weather. In the summer it is normal for Oklahoma temperatures to range from 98 degrees to 105 degrees. This causes the Illinois River to produce a lot of salt this is because it is released from all the waste in the river. The Illinois River doesn't have horrible waste compared to a lot of rivers like the Mississippi River. But I have definitely witnessed people just pouring cans of beer in the river. In Oklahoma there is a lot of irrigation this produces salt. The crops evapotranspire a huge amount of water. The cr ops release good and not so good nutrients from the underlying soil and rock. The Illinois river has suffered a lot of damage from irrigation, heat, and tourists. Since Oklahoma is very protective of our natural ecosystems laws have been put in place to protect the Illinois River. The only changes that occur on the river are usually natural (like salinity levels, wild life, drought, or flooding) because the laws put in place prohibit people from even littering in the river. Also, a lot of people volunteer to clean the river up. The Illinois River is a pretty clean river in a lot of parts the water is not muggy at all you can see to the bottom. There is not a lot of nitrogen and phosphorus pollution in the Illinois River. The total amount of

Hydromorphone Essays

Hydromorphone Essays Hydromorphone Essay Hydromorphone Essay The name of the drug is called Hydromorphone. The systematic name ( IUPAC ) is 4,5-epoxy-3-hydroxy-17-methylmor-phinan-6-one. Hydromorphone hydrochloride has a chemical expression of C17H19NO3. There are four functional groups in Hydromorphone hydrochloride: An Ether group A Ketone group An Amine group ( third ) A Phenol group Stereochemistry and conformation: Hydromorphone hydrochloride has 4 chiral Centres ( Four different groups attached to a sp3 hybridised C one chiral Centre ) . Therefore it has 24 = 16 stereoisomers. Carbon figure 1 has R-configuration Carbon figure 2 has R-configuration Carbon figure 3 has S-configuration Carbon figure 4 has R-configuration Hydromorphone hydrochloride is a semi-rigid molecule because it is composed of a five-member ring system: the phenolic ring ( A ) , the cyclohexane ring ( B ) , the cyclohexanone ring ( C ) , the N-methyl piperidine ring ( D ) , and the tetrahydrofuran ring ( E ) . The molecule has a T form. Ring A, B and E form a perpendicular plane where the C and D form the horizontal plane. Ringing C exists in a chair conformation due to impregnation of C-C two-base hit between C7 and 8. Ringing D besides exists in chair conformation. Synthesis: Commercially, Hydromorphone is made from morphine via either direct rearrangement ( reflux alky or acidic aqueous solution of morphia with Pt or Pd accelerator ) or decrease of morphia via catalytic hydrogenation, this two reactions both produce Dihydromorphine. The Dihydromorphine so undergo Oppenauer oxidization, where it is oxidised with benzophenone in the presence of K tert butoxide or aluminum tert butoxide to organize Hydromorphone. Drug stableness: The half life of Hydromorphone is 2.6hours through unwritten path, where it takes 18.6 hours for sustained release Palladone. Hydromorphone hydrochloride is affected by visible radiation, although Dilaudid hydrochloride injection may develop a little xanthous stain, this alteration does non bespeak loss of authority. Hydromorphone hydrochloride injection should be protected from visible radiation and stored at a controlled room temperature of 25 grades C, but can be exposed to temperatures runing from 15 to30 grades C ; freeze of the injection should be avoided. Hydromorphone hydrochloride tablets should be stored in tight, light-resistant containers, normally at 15 to30 grades C ; nevertheless, the maker recommends that the 8-mg tablets be stored at 15 to 25 grades C. Hydromorphone hydrochloride unwritten solution should be stored in light-resistant containers at 15 to 25 grades C, and suppositories of the drug should be stored at 2 to 8 grades C. Hydromorphone hydrochloride injection reportedly is physically and chemically stable for at least 24 hours in most common IV extract solutions when protected from visible radiation at 25 grades C. Hydromorphone is somewhat soluble in H2O, freely soluble in intoxicant and really soluble in trichloromethane. Formulation and packaging: In the U.K. Hydromorphone is merely available in signifier of unwritten capsules and modified release capsules, which means it is released easy to widen the length of the drug s consequence. Available strengths for Dilaudid hydrochloride ( Palladone A ; reg ; ) : 1.3mg ( orange/clear ) , net monetary value 56-capsules battalion = A ; lb ; 8.82 ; 2.6mg ( red/clear ) , 56- capsules pack = A ; lb ; 17.64. Where for the modified ( let go of Palladone A ; reg ; SR ) : m/r, Dilaudid hydrochloride 2mg ( yellow/clear ) , net monetary value 56- capsules pack = A ; lb ; 20.98 ; 4mg ( pale blue/clear ) , 56- capsules pack = A ; lb ; 28.75 ; 8mg ( pink/clear ) , 56- capsules pack = A ; lb ; 56.08 ; 16mg ( brown/clear ) , 56- capsules pack = A ; lb ; 106.53 ; 24mg ( dark blue/clear ) , 56-cap battalion = A ; lb ; 159.82. [ BNF 56 page 235-236 ] . Lipinski s Rules: The molecular weight of Hydromorphone is 285 g/mol. ( below 500 ) The Log P of Hydromorphone is +1.69. ( lower than +5 ) There is merely one H bond donating group, which is the hydroxyl group in Phenol. ( less than 5 groups ) here are merely three H bond accepting groups. ( less than 10 groups ) The functional groups are by and large stable to metabolism, i.e. hydrolysis and oxidizations. Harmonizing to the Lipinski s regulations of five , Hydromorphone is an orally active drug. LogP and treatment of hydrophobic/hydrophilic belongingss: It is possible to foretell the Log P of a molecule by utilizing the Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Values ( p Values ) for organic fragments. This gives ( +0.5 x 11 ) + ( +2 x 1 ) + ( -1 X 3 ) + ( -1 X1 ) = +3.5. Therefore, the Predicted LogP = +3.5. Since 3.5 is greater than 0.5, Dilaudid is indissoluble in H2O. ( Soluble in H2O if smaller than 0.5 ) Harmonizing to the predicted LogP, Hydromorphone is a really hydrophobic ( lipotropic ) drug and it can go through through the membrane beds in cell and enter the blood stream ( high soaking up ) . Hydromorphone hydrochloride is indissoluble in H2O because of its non-polar groups. They are: The long aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e. cyclohexanes and the phenyl group. These non-polar groups will non interact with polar H2O molecules as they can non organize H bonds together and hence indissoluble. pKa and ionization province: Hydromorphone hydrochloride has a pKa of 8.2 at 20 grades C [ Medicine Complete ] , it is decrepit acidic. To cipher the per centum of ionisation of Hydromorphone ( weak acid ) at different pH, Equation 1 can be used: Equation 1 % ionisation= 1001+antilog ( pKa-pH ) At pH 2: % ionisation = 1001+antilog ( 8.2-2 ) = 6.31 ten 10-5 % At pH 7.4: % ionisation = 1001+antilog ( 8.2-7.4 ) = 13.7 % At pH 10: % ionisation = 1001+antilog ( 8.2-10 ) = 98.4 % From the computations on the old page, I can reason that merely 6.31 ten 10-5 % of Dilaudid is ionized at pH 2, i.e. in the tummy. Therefore, there are 100 % 6.31 ten 10-5 % = 99.9999 % of nonionized Hydromorphone which can go through through the membrane barrier and enter the blood stream. Hydromorphone is extremely absorbed by the organic structure in tummy. Mode of action: Hydromorphone is an opioid anodyne ; it reacts with the opioid mu-receptors. The mu-receptors are discretely distributed in the human encephalon with high denseness in the posterior amygdaloid nucleus, hypothalamus, thalamus, nucleus caudatus, putamen, and certain cortical countries. These receptors are besides found in the spinal cord and GI piece of land. It binds onto the mu-receptors and exerts its principle pharmacological consequence on the Central Nervous System and GI piece of land to bring forth analgesia and sedation. Hydromorphone is extremely absorbed by the human organic structure and it shows the analgesia consequence really rapidly one time enter the organic structure. It is 8 to 10 times stronger than morphia due to its hydrophobicity ( really lipophilic ) . Bibliography: Samuel, B. , Stanley, G. , Robert, R. ( 2004 ) , Process for the Synthesis of Hydromorphone, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp? WO=2006005112 A ; IA=AU2005001002 A ; DISPLAY=DESC, Date accessed 23/04/10. Author unknown. ( Date unknown ) , One-pot Isomerization of Morphine to Dihydromorphinone ( Hydromorphone ) , hypertext transfer protocol: //www.erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/dihydromorphinones.html, Date accessed 23/04/10. Author unknown. ( 2006 ) , Hydromorphone, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.patient.co.uk/medicine/Hydromorphone.htm, Date accessed 23/04/10. Hildebrand, K. , Elsberry, D. , Anderson, V. ( 2001 ) , Stability and Compatibility of Hydromorphone Hydrochloride in an Implantable Infusion System , Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 22 ( 6 ) , Page 1042-1047. Author unknown. ( 2010 ) , Hydromorphone Suppository, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.drugs.com/cdi/hydromorphone-suppository.html, Date accessed 24/04/10 Lipinski, C. ( 2004 ) , Lipinski s rule-of-five, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.bioscreening.com/reference/lipinski_rule.htm, Date accessed 24/04/10. Author unknown. ( 2009 ) , Showing drug card for Hydromorphone ( DB00327 ) , hypertext transfer protocol: //www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00327, Date accessed 24/04/10. Clarkes. ( 2006 ) , Clarke s Analysis of Drugs and Poisons Hydromorphone hydrochloride, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/clarke/2009/CLK0851.htm, Date accessed 24/04/10. Author unknown. ( 2008 ) , Monograph Hydromorphone Hydrochloride, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.medscape.com/druginfo/monograph? cid=med A ; drugid=11338 A ; drugname=Hydromorphone+Rect A ; monotype=monograph A ; print=1, Date accessed 24/04/10. BMJ Group, . ( 2008 ) . British National Formulary 56, London, RPS Publishing. Bruice, P, . ( 2004 ) . Organic Chemistry, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, Pearson. Lo, K, . ( 1998 ) Synthesis of N- Phenethylnorhydromorphone, hypertext transfer protocol: //circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/11862/ubc_2001-0456.pdf ; jsessionid=8D12F28D380E801AE9A422C0F9CD3435? sequence=1, Date accessed 26/04/10

Influenza Pandemic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Influenza Pandemic - Essay Example The research explained how the next influenza pandemic may arise and its possible outcome. This paper also discussed the history of Influenza happened in the year 1918, 1957, and 1968. Moreover this research used pictures and tables for effective illustrations of significant information. An influenza pandemic is a universal outbreak of flu disease that takes place when a new type of influenza virus appears that people have not been exposed to before (Kilbourne ED. 1975). According to Kilbourne ED. (1975) that pandemic flu is a worldwide outbreak of disease that takes place as soon as a new influenza virus appears in humans, causes serious illness and then spreads effortlessly from person to person worldwide. There are three types of influenza. Influenza A, B and C viruses are known to cause disease in humans. While influenza B and C viruses are strictly human pathogens, influenza Type A viruses are readily isolated from avian species, pigs and other animals. Influenza Type A viruses are divided into subtypes based on differences in the surface glycoprotein antigens, hem agglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). There are 14 known HA subtypes and 9 known NA subtypes. All of these subtypes have been isolated in birds but only 3 different HA and two different NA subtypes have been isolated in humans (See table bellow) The influenza viruses are only one of its kinds amongst the respiratory viruses in that they undergo major antigenic variation (Stuart-Harris C. 1979). Antigenic drift entails minor antigen changes from one season to the next and may result in epidemic spread of the new strain. Antigenic shift entails major antigenic changes of the HA and NA molecules and happens merely with Influenza A viruses. These changes can result in the appearance of pandemic viruses. In accordance with Stuart-Harris C. (1979) three worldwide outbreaks of influenza occurred in the 20th century: in 1918, 1957, and 1968. Of these, the 1918 Spanish Flu was the most severe, with 50 million or more deaths worldwide. The last 2 were in the era of modern virology and most thoroughly characterized. All 3 have been unofficially identified by the presumed sites of origin as Spanish, Asian, and Hong Kong influenza, respectively. According to Stuart-Harris C. (1979) they are now identified to represent 3 various antigenic subtypes of influenza Type A virus: H1N1, H2N2, and H3N2, respectively. Not classified as true pandemics are 3 prominent epidemics: a pseudo pandemic in 1947 with low death rates, an epidemic in 1977 that was a pandemic in children, and an abortive epidemic of swine influenza in 1976 that was feared to have pandemic potential. Major influenza epidemics show no predictable periodicity or pattern, and all differ from one another. Evidence implies that true pan demics with changes in hem agglutinin subtypes take place from genetic reassortment with animal influenza Type A viruses. No one can foresee when a pandemic might take place, but public health experts think it is only a matter of time before the next one arises. Experts all over the world are watching the H5N1 avian flu condition in Asia very severely and are preparing for the probability that the virus may start to spread more easily and broadly from person to person. If this happens, the next